Grammar of Occidental/Interlingue in Occidental translated into English: part 2

Here's part 2 of the English translation of the Haas grammar on Occidental in Occidental (from here) that I'm doing mostly for my own benefit. Today's question: how does one know whether to pluralize a noun with -es or just -s when it ends with a consonant?

Occidental	English
ACCENTUATION	STRESS
§ 8. Li accentu primari sta sur li vocal ante li ultim consonant, ma ne sur li quar síllabes bil, ic, im, ul, queles porta li accentu al precedent síllab, mem si ti-ci es bil, ic, im, ul. Un simplic s e li du síllabes men e um in li fine del parol ne changea li accentuation del precedent parol-parte. Si ti regules ne es aplicabil, on accentua li prim vocal del parol.	§ 8. The primary stress is on the vowel before the last consonant, but not on the four syllables bil, ic, im, ul, which take the accent on the preceding syllable, even if this is bil, ic, im, ul. A simple s and the two syllables men and um at the end of the word do not change the stress of the preceding part of the word. If those rules are not applicable, one stresses the first vowel of the word.
Si li natural accentuation ne seque ti regul, it es marcat per un accentu scrit (preferibilmen quam in é, tolerat anc è o ê). On posse omisser li accentu scrit, exceptet sur vocales final, o usar it anc in altri casus por garantir li desirat accentuation.	If the natural stress does not follow this rule, it is marked by a written accent (preferably as in é, also tolerated are è or ê). One can omit the written accent, except on final vowels, or also use it in other cases to guarantee the desired stress.
In parol-compositiones (anc autonom paroles con prefixes) li principal parte seque ti regules, li altres posse reciver un accentu secundari. Li pòríu *, familie, àvie, doctòr, formàr, li formàt, li formàte, formànt; duràbil, elèctric, lògic, li lògica, li lògico, pràctic, li práctíca, il práctica, il ìndica, il èxplica, dùplic, il dùplica, multìplic, il multìplica, centùplic, il centùplica, specìfic, il specìfica, felìci, ùltim, règul, hercùlic, li artìcul, il artìcula; mìnus, ìris, fòrmes, families, àvies, generàlmen, enèrgicmen, li fenòmen, màximum, ultimàtum, li legùme; il plìca, il rùla, dìe, dèo, tùi, vìa, il tràe, it flùe; qualitá, heróe, li logí, il logía, li fúlmine, it fúlmina, li córpor, il incórpora, li dúbit, il dúbita; micro-còsmo, anglosaxònic, agricultùra, centimètre, postcàrte, manuscrìte, genú-articulation, unifòrm, li unifòrme, il unifòrma, il internationalìsa, ínpracticàbil, índubitàbilmen, li fèrro-vìa, il ínvìa, it inflùe, il subtràe, hodíe, il contradí, il retrovèni. * In vocabulariums e manuales li scrition del acut es obligatori, ti del gravis recomendat quam medie didactic por accentus ínscrit: ínscrit, il inscrí, ìris, ottùplic, il rèplica, il multìplica, specìfic, pacìfic, il artìcula, il inspùla, il ànima, li ferrovìa, li relvìa, il refá, it rèsta.	In composed words (also standalone words with prefixes) the first part follows these rules, the others may receive a secondary accent.. Li pòríu *, familie, àvie, doctòr, formàr, li formàt, li formàte, formànt; duràbil, elèctric, lògic, li lògica, li lògico, pràctic, li práctíca, il práctica, il ìndica, il èxplica, dùplic, il dùplica, multìplic, il multìplica, centùplic, il centùplica, specìfic, il specìfica, felìci, ùltim, règul, hercùlic, li artìcul, il artìcula; mìnus, ìris, fòrmes, families, àvies, generàlmen, enèrgicmen, li fenòmen, màximum, ultimàtum, li legùme; il plìca, il rùla, dìe, dèo, tùi, vìa, il tràe, it flùe; qualitá, heróe, li logí, il logía, li fúlmine, it fúlmina, li córpor, il incórpora, li dúbit, il dúbita; micro-còsmo, anglosaxònic, agricultùra, centimètre, postcàrte, manuscrìte, genú-articulation, unifòrm, li unifòrme, il unifòrma, il internationalìsa, ínpracticàbil, índubitàbilmen, li fèrro-vìa, il ínvìa, it inflùe, il subtràe, hodíe, il contradí, il retrovèni. * In vocabularies and manuals the writing of the accute is obligatory, that of recommended importance* as a didactic method for non-written accents: ínscrit, il inscrí, ìris, ottùplic, il rèplica, il multìplica, specìfic, pacìfic, il artìcula, il inspùla, il ànima, li ferrovìa, li relvìa, il refá, it rèsta.
§ 9. In li fluent parlada on ne accentua chascun parol secun li regul precedent, ma solmen li maxim important paroles del frase. On posse sèmpre aplicar ti règules secun necessitá. Si on vole accentuàr un cert vocàl, on posse mem accentuar còntra li regul grammaticàl; it esset un medicà, ne un medicò.	§ 9. In fluent speech one does not stress each word according to the preceding rule, but only the most important words of the phrase. One can allways apply these rules according to need. If one wants to stress a certain vowel, one can even accent it against the grammatical rules; it esset un medicà, ne un medicò.
ORTOGRAFIE	ORTOGRAPHY
§ 10. Interlingue conserva maxim possibil li aspect international del paroles; ma it es recomendat vicear li duplic consonantes per li simplic, exceptet si ili es pronunciat diferentmen o es necessi por indicar que li precedent vocal es curt o que s ne es sonori. Duplic consonantes in li radica resta anc in li formes derivat. access, suggester, anates, annu, annales, asserfer, aromatic, bloc, arogant, can, canne, car, carre, present, pressent, li atacca, il atacca, ataccar, cellul, cellulose, rebell, rebellion.	§ 10. Interlingue conserves as much as possible the international appearance ofl the words; but it is recommended to change doubled consonantes to a single, except if it is pronounced differently or is necessary to indicate that the preceding vowel is short or that the s is not sonorous. Doubled consonantes in the root remain also in the derived forms. access, suggester, anates, annu, annales, asserfer, aromatic, bloc, arogant, can, canne, car, carre, present, pressent, li atacca, il atacca, ataccar, cellul, cellulose, rebell, rebellion.
§11. Li grec gruppes de consonantes: th, chl, chr, ph es in general simplificat a: t, cl, cr, f, e vice y vocalic on scri i. Ma anc li historic ortografie es permisset. tema o thema, fonograf o phonograph, cloroform o chloroform, simpatic o sympatic o sympathic.	§11. The Greek consonant groops: th, chl, chr, ph are in general simplified to: t, cl, cr, f, and instead of a vocalic y one writes i. The historic orthography is also permitted, however. tema or thema, fonograf or phonograph, cloroform or chloroform, simpatic or sympatic or sympathic.
§12. Li separation sillabic es líber; preferibil es li separation usat in parlada o secun li parol-componentes.	§12. Syllabic separation is free; preferable is the separation used in speech or according to the word components.
§13. Majuscules es usat solmen in li comensa del frases, in propri nómines, in titulationes, e por distincter Vu, Vos, Vor quam formes de politesse, de vu, vos, vor, si on desira distincter to. Paul, London, Pacifico, Anglia, Danubio, li Senior, su Majestie.	§13. Upper case is used only in the beginning of sentences, in prober names, in titles, and for distinguishing Vu, Vos, Vor as polite forms from vu, vos, vor, if one wishes to make the distinction. Paul, London, Pacifico, Anglia, Danubio, li Senior, su Majestie.
§ 14. Li acurtationes maxim frequent es:	§ 14. The most frequest abbreviations are:
sr. o Sr. = senior sra. o Sra. = seniora srta. o Srta. = senioretta dr. o Dr. = doctor etc. = etcétera PS. = pos-scripte v. = vide pg. = págine cf. = confronta sq. = e sequentes nró. = numeró conc. = concernent	sr. or Sr. = senior (Mr.) sra. or Sra. = seniora (Mrs.) srta. or Srta. = senioretta (Ms.) dr. or Dr. = doctor etc. = etcétera PS. = pos-scripte (P.S.) v. = vide (see) pg. = págine (page) cf. = confronta (opposite?) sq. = e sequentes (and the following) nró. = numeró (number) conc. = concernent (concerning)
resp. = respectivmen p. ex. = por exemple i. e. = it es pl. = ples pl. t. = ples tornar h. = hora(s) am. = ante midí pm = pos midí a. c. = annu current m. c. = mensu current a. p. = annu passat m. p. = mensu passat	resp. = respectivmen (respectively) p. ex. = por exemple (for example) i. e. = it es (i.e. -- that is) pl. = ples (please) pl. t. = ples tornar (please turn) h. = hora(s) (hours) am. = ante midí pm = pos midí a. c. = annu current (current year) m. c. = mensu current (current month) a. p. = annu passat (previous year) m. p. = mensu passat (previous month)
ARTICUL	ARTICLE
§ 15. In Interlingue existe un sol articul definit: li, por li substantives masculin, feminin e neutri, singular e plural. li patre, li matre, li table, li patres, li matres, li tables.	§ 15. In there is a single definite article: li, for all nouns masculine, feminine and neuter, singular and plural. li patre, li matre, li table, li patres, li matres, li tables. (the father, the mother, the table, the fathers, the mothers, the tables.)
§ 16. Un articul índefinit existe solmen por li singulare: un. Por li plurale li substantive es usat sin articul. Yo vide un avie. Yo vide avies.	§ 16. An indefinite article exists only for the singular: un. For the plural the noun is used without an article. Yo vide un avie. Yo vide avies. (I see a bird. I see birds)
§ 17. Li articul li posse prender li plurale, si null altri parol expresse it. On deve metter punctus sur lis i. Ma mult i ne havet punctus.	§ 17. The article li can take the plural, if no other word expresses it. On deve metter punctus sur lis i. Ma mult i ne havet punctus. (One needs to put dots on the i's. But many i's did not have dots.)
§ 18. A li es contractet a al, de li a del. Il eat al scol. Li árbores del forest es alt.	§ 18. A li is contracted to al, de li to del. Il eat al scol. Li árbores del forest es alt. (He went to the school. The trees of the forest are old)
§ 19. Un articul partitiv ne existe. Il trinca aqua. Noi manja fructes.	§ 19. A partitive article does not exist. Il trinca aqua. Noi manja fructes. (He drinks water. We eat fruits.)
§ 20. Li articul definit indica alquó ja mentionat o conosset, o li tot specie, li articul índefinit alquó ínconosset o ne ancor tractat. Li can quel vu conosse es fidel. Canes es fidel. Li can es fidel =fidelitá és un qualitá del tot specie can. Un can de mi fratre es mordaci, ma li altris ne es tal. Fidelitá es un valorosi qualitá. Li fidelitá del can (o del canes) es pruvat.	§ 20. The definite article indicates something already mentioned or known, or the entire species, the indefinite article something unknown or still not dealt with. The dog that you know is faithful. Dogs are faithful. The dog is faithful = fidelity is a quality of the entire dog species. One dog of my brother's bites, but the others are not that way. Fidelity is a valorous quality. The fidelity of the dog (or of the dogs) is proven.
SUBSTANTIVE	NOUNS
§ 21. Interlingue lassa al paroles lor desinenties natural, e ne prescri cert vocales final por cert classes de paroles. Cangurú, villa, radio, matre, midí.	§ 21. Interlingue leaves words their natural terminations, and does not prescribe certain final vowels for certain classes of words. Cangurú, villa, radio, matre, midí.
§ 22. Li neutral vocal final -e trova se in mult substantives por fixar li corect pronunciation del final consonant, pro eufonie, o por distincter li substantive del adjectivic o verbal form simil. Pace, image, rose, libre, cable, altruisme, curve, centre, central, centrale, directiv, directive, marine, circulare, cantate, infinite, tangente.	§ 22. The neutral final vowel -e is found in many nouns to fix establish the correct pronounciation of the final consonant, for euphony, or to distinguish the noun from a similar adjectival or verbal form. Pace, image, rose, libre, cable, altruisme, curve, centre, central, centrale, directiv, directive, marine, circulare, cantate, infinite, tangente.
§ 23. Un génere grammatical ne existe. Omni substantives es masculin, feminin o neutri secun lor signification.	§ 23. A grammatical gender does not exist. All nouns are masculin, feminine or neutral according to their meaning.
§ 24. On posse indicar li génere in li nómines por entes: -o indica li masculin, -a li feminin. Anglese, angleso, anglesa, cavall, cavallo, cavalla. Paroles quam patre, matre etc. ne besona finales de sexu, proque ili es masculin o feminin per se self. In altri substantives -o indica lu special, individual, singulari, concret, -a lu general, extendet, colectiv, comun, anc action, loc e témpor. rosiero, rosiera, lago, aqua, promenada, plazza, pasca.	§ 24. One can indicate the gender in names for entities: -o indicates masculine, -a the feminine. Anglese, angleso, anglesa, cavall, cavallo, cavalla. Words such as patre, matre etc. do not require gender endings, because they are masculine or feminine on their own. In other nouns -o indicates one special, individual, singular, concrete, -a one general, extended, collective, common, as well as action, location and time. rosiero, rosiera, lago, aqua, promenada, plazza, pasca.
§ 25. Quelc substantives forma derivates per adjunter u resp. at al radica; ili conserva li u resp. a anc in li nederivat formes. manu, manual, sexu, sexual, sexualitá, gradu, gradual, graduation, sistema, sistematic, sistematico, sistematisar, sistematisation, dogma, dogmatic, dogmatisme, drama, dramatic, dramaturgo, aqua, aquatic, clima, climatic, climatolog, climatologie, climatologic.	§ 25. Some nouns form derivatives by adding u / at respectively* to the stem; they retain the u / a also in the non-derivative forms. manu, manual, sexu, sexual, sexualitá, gradu, gradual, graduation, sistema, sistematic, sistematico, sistematisar, sistematisation, dogma, dogmatic, dogmatisme, drama, dramatic, dramaturgo, aqua, aquatic, clima, climatic, climatolog, climatologie, climatologic.
§ 26. Por indicar li plurale on adjunte -s, pos consonantes intercalante un -e- eufonic, u to es possibil sin changear li pronunciation del parol. un líbre, du libres, un angul, tri angules, li person, li persones, li tric, li trics, li plug, li plugs, li album, pluri albums, li tram, du trams.	§ 26. To indicate the plural one adds -s, after consonants inserting a euphonic -e-, where it is possible without changing the pronunciation of the word. un líbre, du libres, un angul, tri angules, li person, li persones, li tric, li trics, li plug, li plugs, li album, pluri albums, li tram, du trams.
§ 27. Li substantive resta ínmutat in omni casus grammatical. Es distinctet solmen li genitive per li preposition de, e li dative per li preposition a. Yo vide li sapates de mi fratre.Yo dat li sapates a mi fratre.	§ 27. The noun remains unchanged in all grammatical cases. Only the genetive with the preposition de, and the dative with the preposition a are distinguished. Yo vide li sapates de mi fratre.Yo dat li sapates a mi fratre. (I see the boots of my brother. I gave the boots to my brother.)
§ 28. Propri nómines es changeat minim possibil. Por li principal nómines geografic es selectet in Interlingue li maxim international parol; altrivez on prende maxim possibil li scrition original. Goethe, Shakespeare; Alpes, Danubio, Germania; London, Berlin, Milano, Moskwa, Kharkow, Hoang-ho.	§ 28. Proper names are changed as little as possible. For the main geographic names are selected in Interlingue the most international word; otherwise one uses a writing as close to the original as possible. Goethe, Shakespeare; Alpes, Danubio, Germania; London, Berlin, Milano, Moskwa, Kharkow, Hoang-ho.